• 90 species in the Old World tropics and on Pacific & Indian Ocean islands
• DR personal total: 31 species (34%), 7 photo'd

The Monarchs are a rather large Old World family of (mostly) arboreal flycatchers. Like the New World flycatchers (Tyrannidae) and the Old World flycatchers (Muscicapidae), many of them forage for flying insects by sallying out from perches, and many build cup-like nests. Yet the three groups of flycatchers are not closely related; the similar behaviors are an example of convergent evolution.

Not all monarchs are arboreal, though. Genetic evidence has shown that the two ground-dwelling species in the genus Grallina, formerly considered to be in their own family [Grallinidae, the mudnest-builders or magpie-larks], are actually embedded within the Monarchidae (more on this below).

The Monarchs reach their greatest diversity in the Old World tropics. Among the loveliest are 15 paradise-flycatchers in two genera. Most are in the genus Terpsiphone, like this Red-bellied Paradise-Flycatcher (left). The species frequents the dense forest of the Congo Basin and west Africa; here it is on a nest then under construction in Uganda. Other species are migratory, such as the Asian Paradise-Flycatcher T. paradisi. Its annual arrival at Bharatpur in north-central India heralds the beginning of spring there, just as American Robins do in the eastern United States.

Paradise-Flycatchers are known for their beautiful long tails in adult males. Madagascar Paradise-Flycatcher (right, in a nice shot by Murray Lord). Not all species of paradise-flycatchers have that trait. The Mascarene Paradise-Flycatcher (below), for example, has rather medium length tails in both sexes. This photo is of a female; she, like almost all members of the Monarchidae, has a rather shallow, broad bill. Monarchs are often characterized by broad, flattened bills with a slightly hooked tip, a subterminal maxillary notch, rictal bristles and rounded nostrils (Sibley 1996).

Africa may the center of the paradise-flycatcher world, with 7 of 15 species, but I find it particularly interesting that ancestral flycatchers made it to offshore islands in the Indian Ocean and evolved into separate species on Madagascar [Terpsiphone mutata], on Mauritius and Réunion [T. bourbonnensis], on the Seychelles [T. corvina], and on Annobón Island [T. smithii]. There is also a species on Sao Tomé Island in the Gulf of Guinea off west Africa [T. atrochalybeia].

There are also paradise-flycatchers in the western Pacific. A species in Japan migrates to the Asian mainland in winter [T. atrocaudata], and there are two species on the Philippines. Rufous Paradise-Flycatcher (right, in a lovely photo by Blake Matheson) lives in humid lowland forests. These habitats are rapidly being lost on Mindanao, where this picture was taken. Despite its brilliant color, one primarily finds Rufous Paradise-Flycatcher by voice. The jungles are just that thick and difficult.

The monarchs reach their highest diversity in the Australasian and adjoining regions, with many species scattered throughout the Indonesian and Philippine islands, including birds which such wonderful names as the Cerulean Paradise-Flycatcher Eutrichomyias rowleyi or Celestial Monarch (right, in an amazing shot by Mark Sutton). Both of these are serious endangered. Cerulean Paradise-Flycatcher was listed as extinct by Clements (1991). It is restricted to the island of Sangihe, Indonesia, and was rediscovered during surveys in 1998 (but just 21 birds at six sites). Celestial Monarch has a wider range in the Philippines, but has been recently found at only 10 sites in its severely fragmented lowland habitat (Birdlife International 2000).

During my first visit to the Philippines in 1990, no one knew where or how to find Celestial Monarch. It was a mythical bird. It was also highly sought, in part because the paintings of it showed an erect, electric sky-blue crest (e.g., Birdlife International 2000). Tim Fisher and his cadre of local guides now know how to find it: one must listen for its call and then track it down in the canopy. This can be exceedingly difficult to do. During my Jan 2006 visit to Mindanao, we spent many hours in the muggy lowland forest searching for this bird. When it was found, not all of our group got on it. It just disappears high in the canopy. But those of us who did see it learned, as shown in Sutton's photo, that the crest lies flat atop the head.

Sibley & Ahlquist (1990) showed that the monarchs were among those evolved from the great corvid assemblage that arose in Australasia. A most impressive example of distributional radiation and evolution are the many species of monarchs far-flung across the Pacific. There are shrikebills (Clytorhynchus) on Fiji, New Caledonia, and the Solomons. There are species on many islands in Melanesia and Micronesia. One of the more mysterious is the Silktail Lamprolia victoriae, restricted to two islands in Fiji and only readily found on Taveuni. It feeds low in the understory, including on the ground where it flicks its tail prominently (Pratt et al. 1987).

One monarch has even reached Hawaii: the 'Elepaio(left), which then evolved subspecific differences on three islands (Kauai, Oahu, Hawaii), including three subspecies on the big island of Hawaii itself (Pratt et al. 1987). The 'Elepaio shown is the rather dull Kauai race C. s. sclateri .

The saddest part of the Pacific island story is that quite a number of species are now threatened with extinction. Although the Myiagra monarchs on some islands are still common, others are losing ground rapidly and at least one is already lost. On the same trip in 1979 that I took this marginal photograph of Oceanic Flycatcher M. oceanica on Moen I., Truk (now Chuuk; right), I also saw the Guam Monarch M. freycineti (also known as Guam Myiagra or Guam Flycatcher or, back then, Guam Boatbill). It was in the remnant forest at the north tip of Guam. That was 29 Aug 1979, and I wrote a brief field description of the bird. It was then thought to be fairly common. A horrendous population crash of all Guam birds, including the monarch, took place in the 1980s, primarily due to the accidental introduction of the Brown Tree Snake Boiga irregularis from New Guinea. There were no native snakes on Guam. This non-native predator, against which birds had evolved no defensive strategies, essentially wiped out the native landbirds of Guam . Some, like the Guam Rail Galliralus owstoni, were saved by capturing remaining rails for captive breeding (I saw a wild Guam Rail the same day as the Guam Monarch, before the population collapses). But the flycatcher was decimated. It was extinct within the decade. Just 30 years ago I saw that lovely little monarch as a wild bird. Today it is extinct, never to be seen again. It is hard to accept things like that.

Today, some authors downgrade Guam Monarch to a subspecies of Oceanic Monarch (e.g., Dickinson 2003, Coates et al. 2006) but there is no evidence cited to support this change. Pratt et al. (1987) considered it — and others in this set — to be full species. I am unaware of any genetic or other evidence to deal with this situation. It appears to be simply a matter of opinion at this time.

Some 15 species of monarch flycatchers from Pacific Ocean islands are currently listed as seriously threatened with extinction (Birdlife International 2000). Three are listed in the "critical" category, the greatest level of concern: Tahiti Monarch Pomarea nigra (just 9 pairs and 24 birds remaining as of Jan 2000), Fatuhiva Monarch P. whitneyi (endemic to Fatu Hiva in the Marquesas in density of only 1 pair/10 ha), and Black-chinned Monarch Monarcha boanensis (confined to the island of Boano off nw. Seram in Indonesia; only 5-10 pairs found one 5-ha patch in 1994, perhaps more in unexplored spots on the island). This latter species was only rediscovered in 1991; Clements (1991) listed the last known specimen as 1939.

On a brighter side, one final set of monarchs appear to be doing fine. Indeed, Magpie-Lark (left) is common in Australia and southern New Guinea. It, and the Torrent-lark Grallina bruijni in montane New Guinea, have traditionally been considered to be the two members of the family Grallinidae. However, genetic and biochemical evidence indicates that the two members of the genus Grallina is deeply embedded within the monarchs (Baverstock et al. 1992, Sibley 1996, Schodde & Mason 1999). Unfortunately, the assignments of text and species in the Handbook of Birds of the World series are, of necessity, decided years prior to publication. The initial decision was to treat the Grallinidae as a family. By the time of the publication of the Monarchidae (Coates et al. 2006) it was acknowledged that the "most recent analysis strongly indicates that the magpie-larks are, indeed, monarchs" (p. 247). Yet it was too late to change, and "Grallinidae" will have a family chapter in Vol. 13.

Schodde & Mason (1999) wrote, as to revising the placement of magpie-larks into the clade with drongos, fantails and monarchs: "Molecular and cranial studies have since shown that magpie-larks are unquestionably dicrurids. This makes sense of their slow buoyant flight, colour pattern and sexual dimorphism which is Monarcha-like; even pallid bill, inner nest structure, egg markings and the Myiagra-like begging calls of its fledglings fit." These words make even better sense when placing them directly in the Monarchidae itself. Indeed, they are so embedded that most recent authors do not even give them subfamily status (e.g., Dickinson 2003).

The distinctively patterned Magpie-lark (right) is widespread in Australia (Blakers et al. 1984). It is often one of the first new birds seen on a visit "down under." They walk in pastures and cleared areas wherever water is nearby, including the lawns on the Cairns' esplanade (above left). They also reside in the drier plains of the interior, where this adult was carrying food for nestlings (right).

The other species in the genus, Torrent-lark, occurs only in montane New Guinea where it haunts rocky, swift-flowing streams. It forages on exposed rocks in streams, or sometime wet gravel nearby (even on roads; Coates 1990). This sounds like the niche filled by the forktails in southeast Asia.

The Magpie-lark builds thick cup-like mud nests; fledged young birds (left) are fed by the parents for a time, and then form erratic flocks. This is the closest to any wandering made by most of these birds, although some seasonal movements have been noted in the Torres Strait region and vagrants do occasionally occur to Tasmania (Blakers et al. 1984). Birds mostly occur in pairs or small family parties.

Clements (1991) uses the term "Mudnest Builders" for the Grallinidae but some Australian texts (e.g., Simpson & Day 1996) calls the Corcoracidae (Apostlebirds) the "Australian Mud-Nesters" [species of both groups build mud nests]. They were once considered part of the same family but they are unrelated. The building of mud nests was just a common adaptation to living in open interior country — the same adaptation is made by the horneros in South America.

The Magpie-lark and Torrent-lark proved to be terrestrial monarchs that build mud nests. Several other genera, often thought to be monarchs, are not. The Elminia crested-flycatchers of Africa, the African Erythrocercus flycatchers, the Asian genus Philentoma, and the Australasian boatbills in genus Machaerirhynchus have all been considered among the Monarchidae. Indeed, they are all found there in Handbook of the Birds of the World (Coates et al. 2006). But the authors admit that these are erroneous misplacements. Dickinson (2003) creates a new family for the boatbills, and I have followed that approach [Machaerirhynchidae]. For the rest, Philentoma may be related to Helmet-Shrikes, and I place the other 'flycatchers' in the family Stenostiridae [Fairy Flycatchers]; see Barker et al. 2004, Beresford et al. 2005, Filardi & Moyle 2005.

There is undoubtedly much left to learn about the Monarchidae.

Photos: The Red-bellied (sometimes called Black-headed) Paradise-Flycatcher Terpsiphone rufiventer was photographed at Kibale Forest, Uganda, 26 July 2002. Murray Lord photographed the Madagascar Paradise-Flycatcher Terpsiphone mutata near Ifaty, Madagascar, on 8 October 2005. The Mascarene Paradise-Flycatcher Terpsiphone bourbonnensis was above Le Brulé, Réunion Island, on 4 Dec 1992. The Seychelles Paradise-Flycatcher Terpsiphone corvina was on La Digue I., Seychelles, on 13 Nov 1992. Blake Matheson photographed the Rufous Paradise-Flycatcher Terpsiphone cinnamomea in the PICOP forest, Mindanao, the Philippines, on 28 Dec 2005. Steve Wilson photographed the Rufous-collared Monarch Arses insularis at a nest behind the research center at Baiyer River reserve, Papua New Guinea, on 27 Oct 1983 (my photo attempt didn't work on this bird). Mark Sutton photographed the Celestial Monarch Hypthymis coelestis at Apaya, Luzon, Philippines, on 6 Apr 2004. The 'Elepaio Chasiempis sandwichensis was in the Alakai swamp, Kauai, Hawaii, on 29 Aug 1989. The Oceanic Flycatcher Myiagra oceanica was on Moen I., Truk (=Chuuk), Micronesia, on 30 Aug 1978. The Magpie-lark Grallina cyanoleuca photos were taken, respectively: at Cairns, Queensland, in Nov 1983; carrying food at Deniliquin, New South Wales, on 1 Jan 1998; and the still dependent fledgling near Mareeba, Queensland, in Jan 1998. Photos © Don Roberson, except Rufous-collared Monarch © Steve Wilson, Rufous Paradise-Flycatcher © Blake Matheson, and Celestial Monarch © Mark Sutton, and used with permission; all rights reserved.

Bibliographic note: There is no family book but the Handbook of the Birds of the World chapter (Coates et al. 2006) is a good introduction and has many superb photographs.

Literature cited:

Barker, F.K., A. Cibois, P. Schikler, J. Feinstein, and J. Cracraft. 2004. Phylogeny and diversification of the largest avian radiation. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 101: 11040-11045.

Baverstock, P.R., R. Schodde, L. Christidis, M. Krieg, and J. Birrell. 1992. Evolutionary relationships of the Australasian mud-nesters (Grallinidae, Corcoracidae): immunological evidence. Australian J. Zool. 40: 173-179.

Beresford, P., F.K. Barker, P.G. Ryan, and T.M. Crowe. 2005. African endemics span the tree of songbirds (Passeri): molecular systematics of several evolutionary 'enigmas'. Proc. R. Soc. B 272: 849-858.

Birdlife International. 2000. Threatened Birds of the World. Barcelona & Cambridge, U.K., Lynx Edicions & Birdlife International.

Blakers, M., S.J.J.F. Davies, and P.N. Reilly. 1984. The Atlas of Australian Birds. Royal Australian Ornith. Union, Melbourne Univ. Press, Carlton, Victoria.

Clements, J.F. 1991. Birds of the World: A Checklist. 4th ed. Ibis Publ., Vista, CA.

Coates, B.J. 1990. The Birds of Papua New Guinea. Part II. Dove Publ., Ltd., Alderley, Australia.

Coates, B.J., G.C.L. Dutson, and C.E. Filardi. 2006. Family Monarchidae (Monarchs), pp. 244-329 in Handbook of the Birds of the World (J. del Hoyo, A. Elliott, & D.A. Christie, eds.). Vol. 11. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona.

Dickinson, E., ed. 2003. The Howard & Moore Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World. 3d ed. Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, N.J.

Filardi, C.E., and R.G. Moyle. 2005. Single origin of a pan-Pacific bird group and upstream colonization of Australasia. Nature 438: 216-219.

Pratt, H. D., P. L. Bruner, and D. G. Berrett. 1987. A Field Guide to the Birds of Hawaii and the Tropical Pacific. Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, N.J.

Schodde, R., and I.J. Mason. 1999. The Directory of Australian Birds, Passerines. CSIRO Publishing.

Sibley, C. G. 1996. Birds of the World, on diskette, Windows version 2.0. Charles G. Sibley, Santa Rosa, CA.

Sibley, C. G., and J. E. Ahlquist. 1990. Phylogeny and Classification of Birds: A Study in Molecular Evolution. Yale Univ. Press, New Haven, CT.

Simpson, K, and N. Day. 1996. A Field Guide to the Birds of Australia, revised 5th ed. Penguin Books Australia Ltd., Ringwood, Victoria, Australia.